3% (mutation at codon

70) and no significant increase in the risk of transmission was observed after adjusting for viral load at delivery (OR 4.8; with wide 95% CI 0.2–131; P = 0.35) [142]. High-level resistance was not reported and the median CD4 cell count in the women was 540 cells/μL. In retrospective cohort studies from France [277] and the USA [140], 20% and 8.3%, respectively, of HIV-positive newborns had zidovudine-resistance mutations after maternal zidovudine prophylaxis. In the WITS, lower CD4 cell SCH772984 mouse count and higher HIV viral load at delivery were associated with increased risk of transmission while in the multivariate analysis, the presence of at least one mutation associated with zidovudine resistance was also associated with an increased risk of transmission (OR 5.15; 95% CI 1.4–18.97) [141]. With infant feeding patterns, it is difficult to separate drug dosing AZD6244 molecular weight from feeds, so drugs without food restrictions are preferred, an advantage of zidovudine. Important in this age group, where therapeutic options are more limited than in older children and adults, should transmission occur multidrug resistance is avoided. However, some clinicians prefer to choose another antiretroviral, with no history of maternal resistance, for

infant post-exposure monotherapy. The established alternatives, nevirapine and lamivudine, have potent antiretroviral effect but a low (single-point mutation) barrier to resistance. The dosing and safety issues with newer therapies, such as lopinavir/ritonavir, are outlined below. It is therefore suggested that neonatal zidovudine monotherapy remains a reasonable approach for infants born to mothers with a HIV viral load < 50 HIV RNA copies/mL plasma, even if there is a history Tobramycin of zidovudine resistance. Further investigation of the national cohort data to address this question is under way. Where

a low transmission-risk mother (see Section 5: Use of antiretroviral therapy in pregnancy) chooses zidovudine monotherapy plus PLCS, the infant should receive zidovudine monotherapy [4]. There are two situations where triple combination PEP for neonates is advised: Post-delivery infant-only prophylaxis: mother found to be HIV positive after delivery, this is only effective if given within 48–72 hours of birth Detectable maternal viraemia (> 50 HIV RNA copies/mL) at delivery, mother may be on cART or not: delivery before complete viral suppression is achieved: e.g. starting cART late or delivery premature viral rebound with or without resistance, with or without poor adherence unplanned delivery: e.g. premature delivery prior to starting ART; or late presentation when maternal HIV parameters may be unknown 8.1.2 Infants < 72 hours old, born to untreated HIV-positive mothers, should immediately initiate three-drug antiretroviral therapy for 4 weeks.

Medical tourism continues

to grow, and the role of the travel medicine practitioner in preparing such patients has not been established.32 The most common health problems during travel include TD, skin problems, and respiratory symptoms.2,3,29 Many illnesses experienced are mild and resolve spontaneously, which complicates accurate etiological diagnoses, and reduces the feasibility and utility of further Cabozantinib research aimed in this area. Nevertheless, there are some practical questions that have been suggested as foci of possible future research. These involve noninfectious and infectious health problems that arise during travel, for which an improved evidence base regarding incidence and/or management would be welcome (Table 2). Travelers and travel medicine practitioners usually emphasize prevention of infectious diseases as the priority during the pre-travel encounter. However, the highest risks of death and disability for travelers arise from trauma. Typically, for selected travelers, brief reference to security issues is made (eg, terrorism and crime risk, children’s car seat use, the use of helmets when cycling during travel, and the use of life vests during water sports); however, novel approaches to improve security in travel should be explored.33 Data also suggest

that travelers are at risk for thromboembolism during long flights; however, questions remain about appropriate targets for prophylaxis and optimal therapeutic approaches to thromboembolic prevention. The risks of sexually transmitted MEK inhibitor infections are often not sufficiently emphasized during

pre-travel encounters, particularly given the high incidence of casual sex during travel.34,35 Effective strategies to Loperamide advise and promote adherence regarding safe sex practices are needed. In addition, medical volunteering is a common cause for travel that poses increased risk of transmission of blood-borne pathogens, such as HIV and hepatitis B and C. While vector avoidance is well recognized as an optimal approach to reduce the risks of many infectious diseases (including malaria), novel strategies to improve compliance with use of preventive measures such DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide) and permethrin should be explored. The GeoSentinel report has informed an evidence-based approach to the differential diagnosis of ill-returned travelers.29 The report showed significant regional differences in proportionate morbidity in most of the broad syndromic illness categories among travelers presenting to GeoSentinel sites. However, many questions remain about diagnostic and management approaches, particularly for diseases that have a diagnosis of exclusion such as post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome.

The objectives were to describe the use of role-play

in this setting and to investigate how videoed role-plays have benefitted the perceptions of the OSPAP students in five defined areas. Volunteers were sought from third year healthcare professional students. Student physiotherapists, adult nurses, paramedics and radiographers were invited to act out a role in two hospital scenarios that were videoed in a simulated hospital setting using the facilities available at the University of XX. The volunteer students then participated in facilitated group discussions with the seven OSPAP students. A structured questionnaire was designed to assess students’ perceptions on the extent to which the session improved i) their knowledge of the role GSK269962 mw of other healthcare professionals; ii)

this website their understanding of their role as part of the healthcare team in providing patient-centred care; iii) the extent to which being a student observer, iv) watching the video play-back and v) the facilitated discussion had each provided insight into their practice. Questionnaires were administered immediately after the session and allowed space for comments. All participants gave their verbal and written consent to use the data collected for future publication and research. Students found the interaction with healthcare professional students a positive experience. Table 1 shows that the students’ perceived understanding of the role of other healthcare professionals

and their part in working within this team was greatly increased. The experience of observing others role-playing, watching the videos and discussing issues Venetoclax chemical structure that the scenarios had raised with the other students had a high impact on their perception of their own practice. Table 1: Student rating of questions from no benefit/extent (0) to great benefit/extent (3) (n = 7) Question 0 1 2 3 1. To what extent did the role-play scenarios help improve your knowledge of the role of other healthcare professionals 0 0 1 6 2. To what extent did the role-play scenarios help improve your understanding of your role as a pharmacist when working with other HCPs in providing patient-centred care? 0 0 1 6 3. How do you rate your experience of being a student observer as a method of providing insight into your own practice? 0 0 0 7 4. How do you rate the use of video playback as a method of providing insight into your own practice? 0 0 0 7 5. How do you rate the facilitated discussion after each role-play as a method of providing insight into your practice 0 0 0 7 This study has shown that the use of a structured alternative teaching method improves students’ perceived understanding of how to provide patient-centred care as part of the interprofessional team. Although the sample size was small, the results were overwhelmingly positive. 1. Villadsen A, Allain L, Bell Land Hingley-Jones, H.

’ (Pharmacist-10) This was compounded by concerns over working with accuracy checking technicians (ACTs) ‘I’m a bit nervous…it’s still the pharmacist’s responsibility even though

it’s the ACT that has checked it.’ (Pharmacist-3). Essentially, pharmacists are taking on work unnecessarily whilst simultaneously disempowering their staff from taking responsibility for their work. This creates an impasse where neither pharmacist, staff or ultimately, customers benefit. Pharmacists delegate, but often incompletely; they also allow ‘reverse delegation’. Acknowledging that this behaviour potentially creates a workload problem JAK inhibitor is essential. Better workload management could be achieved if pharmacists were only involved with tasks that specifically required them. Delegation could be a valuable tool in easing pharmacist workload pressures; effective Bleomycin supplier staff planning and behaviour changes from the whole pharmacy team are requisites. Observation has given a unique insight into how effectively pharmacists delegate and manage their work albeit in a small sample of pharmacies. 1. Gidman W. Increasing community pharmacy workloads in England: causes and consequences. Int J Clin Pharm 2011; 33:

512–520. 2. Bond C, Blenkinsopp A, Inch J, Celino G, Gray, N. The effect of the new community pharmacy contract on the community pharmacy workforce. The Pharmacy Practice Research Lck Trust 2008:1–34. Rachel Urban1,2, Nooresameen Rana1, Evgenia Paloumpi1, Julie Morgan1 1University of Bradford, Bradford, UK, 2Bradford Institute For Health Research,

Bradford, UK, 3Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Bradford, UK To determine which health care providers (HCPs) communicate with community pharmacy regarding changes to patients’ medication using semi-structured interviews. Community pharmacies receive information regarding changes to patients’ medication infrequently and inconsistently. Communication to community pharmacies in England must be increased to improve seamless care and reduce medication errors. Lack of communication to community pharmacy is a longstanding issue. Recently measures to improve communication have been introduced including guidance from the Royal Pharmaceutical Society (RPS)1 and the introduction the Discharge Medicines Review (DMR) service in Wales. Previous studies have shown that communication with community pharmacies can contribute toward effective, seamless care and reduce error, 2 however, there is little evidence which examines the range of different HCPs who currently liaise with community pharmacy. This study explored which HCPs communicate with community pharmacies regarding medication changes, the extent of the communication and solutions for improvement.

Two weeks later, IF serology demonstrated an IgG titer of 1/1,280 against R conorii. A protein C deficiency was also diagnosed.

A 61-year-old Moroccan living in Belgium was repatriated from Morocco in September 2007 and admitted in the University Hospital of Antwerp, Belgium because of multi organ failure. He was visiting his family in Tetouan and in Nador (Mediterranean coast of Morocco) when he became abruptly ill. He was hospitalized in an intensive care unit in Morocco with high fever, jaundice, severe upper intestinal bleeding, and septic shock. Blood results showed at that time elevated white blood cells count (17,600/µL, comprising 95% of neutrophils), a low platelet count (48,000/µL), an elevated CRP level (20 mg/dL), a kidney failure (level of creatinine: 2.5 mg/dL), and liver test disturbances (ALT: 102 learn more IU/L, total bilirubin 6.3 mg/dL, conjugated

bilirubin 4.4 mg/dL). Fluid resuscitation, inotropic agents, hemodialysis, proton-pump inhibitors, and amoxicillin–clavulanate were administered and the patient was transferred to our institution 10 days later. At admission he had no more fever (37.2°C), was hemodynamically stable and cognitively fine. Patient was too weak to stand alone, but no focal neurological defect was found. Jaundice and a slight purpuric rash were noticed. Doxycycline was added to the ongoing treatment. A gastroscopy revealed a large gastric ulceration with stigma of recent bleeding. Selleck PF-562271 Clinical and laboratory evolution was quickly favorable thereafter. On admission in our institution IF assay was positive for R conorii (IgG titer: 1/640) and R typhi (1/320). Paired serology 2 weeks later confirmed a more than fourfold

increase of the titer against R conorii (>1/2,560), but not against R typhi (1/640). The three reported cases of MSF acquired in Morocco presented with very different malignant courses: the first one with meningoencephalitis, the second one with lung embolism, and the third one with septic shock and multi-organ failure. No fatality occurred but the first patient experienced prolonged and serious neurological impairment. In historical series before antibiotic use, mortality rate of MSF was below 1% and severe forms were described very sporadically.2 Since the eighties however, complicated cases have been increasingly reported. http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/BafilomycinA1.html Table 1 summarizes the main findings of the largest published series.5–15 This overview has however several limitations. First, comparisons between studies are impossible because they differ widely in terms of location, setting (mostly hospital-based), design (mostly retrospective), study participants (adults and/or children), recruitment bias, diagnostic criteria for MSF (clinical—classic immunofluorescence serology—newer reference methods), and case definitions of severe course. This last definition is particularly variable between series, ranging from “hospital admission”13 to “severe organ involvement”8,12 or “admission in intensive care.

The characteristics of selleck inhibitor North American travelers (NAM) and European travelers (EUR) were compared using chi-square test, t-test, and odds ratios calculation with 95% confidence intervals.

The study protocol was approved by the Research Office from the Medical School of the Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco. During the study period, 6,798 international travelers were approached; 5,988 (88%) agreed to participate and completed the questionnaire. Information from 1,612 NAM and 3,590 EUR was retrieved from the database. Questionnaires excluded from the analysis (786 questionnaires) belonged mainly to travelers residing in developing countries in the Americas. The mean age of NAM was 38.1 years (SD 12.88); 52.2% (836 of 1,601) were females; 47.9% (767 of 1,601) were single; 88.4% (1,424 of 1,611) visited Cusco mainly for tourism; and 89.4% (1,437 of 1,607) traveled with companions. The mean age of EUR was 34.2 years (SD 10.41); 50.7% (1,808 of 3,566) were females; 53.2%

(1,897 of 3,567) were single; 92.2% (3,308 of 3,589) visited Cusco mainly for tourism; and 91.2% (3,258 of 3,572) traveled with companions. The demographic characteristics of both groups are compared in Table Talazoparib 1. NAM reported being ill during their stay in Cusco more frequently than EUR [58.5% (943 of 1,612) vs 42% (1,510 of 3,590), p < 0.01]. They also reported more than one illness more often [23.6% (380 of 1,612) vs 14.1% (505 of 3,590), respectively, p < 0.01]. Among those who admitted being ill in Cusco, NAM reported diarrhea less often [46.7% (440 of 943) vs 55.6% (839 of 1,510), p < 0.01] and AMS more frequently [52.8% (497 of 941) vs 35.2% (531 of 1,509), p < 0.01] than EUR. No significant differences were found regarding the prevalence of sun burns, isolated fever, upper respiratory tract symptoms, sexually transmitted diseases, and traffic accidents. There were

small differences between NAM and EUR regarding the reception of information on travel-related health Mirabegron issues [93.1% (1,494 of 1,604) vs 96.9% (3,454 of 3,566), p < 0.01] and the likelihood of consulting more than one source of information [51.5% (768 of 1,491) vs 56.9% (1,963 of 3,449), p < 0.01]. EUR received information from a health care professional more often [67.1% (2,318 of 3,453) vs 52% (776 of 1,491), p < 0.01]. Specifically, they received information from a travel medicine practitioner [45.8% (1,583 of 3,453) vs 37% (552 of 1,491), p < 0.01] or a general practice physician [28.2% (975 of 3,453) vs 19.5% (291 of 1,491), p < 0.01] more often. The sources of pre-travel health information are compared in Table 2. The frequency of vaccination was significantly lower among NAM [67.3% (1,079 of 1,603) vs 85.5% (3,053 of 3,570), p < 0.01] as was the mean number of vaccines received by each subject (1.97 SD 1.68 vs 2.63 SD 1.49; t-test 14.02, p < 0.01).

The characteristics of AZD6244 North American travelers (NAM) and European travelers (EUR) were compared using chi-square test, t-test, and odds ratios calculation with 95% confidence intervals.

The study protocol was approved by the Research Office from the Medical School of the Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco. During the study period, 6,798 international travelers were approached; 5,988 (88%) agreed to participate and completed the questionnaire. Information from 1,612 NAM and 3,590 EUR was retrieved from the database. Questionnaires excluded from the analysis (786 questionnaires) belonged mainly to travelers residing in developing countries in the Americas. The mean age of NAM was 38.1 years (SD 12.88); 52.2% (836 of 1,601) were females; 47.9% (767 of 1,601) were single; 88.4% (1,424 of 1,611) visited Cusco mainly for tourism; and 89.4% (1,437 of 1,607) traveled with companions. The mean age of EUR was 34.2 years (SD 10.41); 50.7% (1,808 of 3,566) were females; 53.2%

(1,897 of 3,567) were single; 92.2% (3,308 of 3,589) visited Cusco mainly for tourism; and 91.2% (3,258 of 3,572) traveled with companions. The demographic characteristics of both groups are compared in Table http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Adriamycin.html 1. NAM reported being ill during their stay in Cusco more frequently than EUR [58.5% (943 of 1,612) vs 42% (1,510 of 3,590), p < 0.01]. They also reported more than one illness more often [23.6% (380 of 1,612) vs 14.1% (505 of 3,590), respectively, p < 0.01]. Among those who admitted being ill in Cusco, NAM reported diarrhea less often [46.7% (440 of 943) vs 55.6% (839 of 1,510), p < 0.01] and AMS more frequently [52.8% (497 of 941) vs 35.2% (531 of 1,509), p < 0.01] than EUR. No significant differences were found regarding the prevalence of sun burns, isolated fever, upper respiratory tract symptoms, sexually transmitted diseases, and traffic accidents. There were

small differences between NAM and EUR regarding the reception of information on travel-related health Adenosine issues [93.1% (1,494 of 1,604) vs 96.9% (3,454 of 3,566), p < 0.01] and the likelihood of consulting more than one source of information [51.5% (768 of 1,491) vs 56.9% (1,963 of 3,449), p < 0.01]. EUR received information from a health care professional more often [67.1% (2,318 of 3,453) vs 52% (776 of 1,491), p < 0.01]. Specifically, they received information from a travel medicine practitioner [45.8% (1,583 of 3,453) vs 37% (552 of 1,491), p < 0.01] or a general practice physician [28.2% (975 of 3,453) vs 19.5% (291 of 1,491), p < 0.01] more often. The sources of pre-travel health information are compared in Table 2. The frequency of vaccination was significantly lower among NAM [67.3% (1,079 of 1,603) vs 85.5% (3,053 of 3,570), p < 0.01] as was the mean number of vaccines received by each subject (1.97 SD 1.68 vs 2.63 SD 1.49; t-test 14.02, p < 0.01).

We hypothesized that triclosan enriches for Dehalococcoides-like Chloroflexi because these bacteria respire organochlorides and are likely less sensitive, relative to other bacteria, to the antimicrobial effects of triclosan. Triplicate anaerobic soil microcosms were seeded with agricultural soil, which was not previously exposed to triclosan, and were amended with 1 mg kg−1 of triclosan. Triplicate control microcosms did not receive triclosan, and the experiment was run for 618 days. The overall bacterial community (assessed by automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) was not

impacted by triclosan; however, the abundance of Dehalococcoides-like Chloroflexi 16S rRNA genes (determined by qPCR) increased 20-fold with triclosan amendment compared with a fivefold increase without triclosan. This work demonstrates that triclosan

impacts Epigenetics inhibitor anaerobic soil communities at environmentally relevant levels. “
“Endophytic fungi associated with three bryophyte species in the Fildes Region, King George Island, maritime Antarctica, that is, the liverwort Barbilophozia hatcheri, the mosses Chorisodontium aciphyllum and Sanionia uncinata, were studied by culture-dependent method. A total of 128 endophytic fungi were isolated from 1329 tissue segments of 14 samples. The colonization rate of endophytic fungi in three bryophytes species were 12.3%, 12.1%, and 8.7%, respectively. check details These isolates were identified to 21 taxa, with 15 Ascomycota,

5 Basidiomycota, and 1 unidentified fungus, based on morphological characteristics and sequence analyses of ITS region and D1/D2 domain. The dominant fungal endophyte was Hyaloscyphaceae Methane monooxygenase sp. in B. hatcheri, Rhizoscyphus sp. in C. aciphyllum, and one unidentified fungus in S. uncinata; and their relative frequencies were 33.3%, 32.1%, and 80.0%, respectively. Furthermore, different Shannon–Weiner diversity indices (0.91–1.99) for endophytic fungi and low endophytic fungal composition similarities (0.19–0.40) were found in three bryophyte species. Growth temperature tests indicated that 21 taxa belong to psychrophiles (9), psychrotrophs (11), and mesophile (1). The results herein demonstrate that the Antarctic bryophytes are an interesting source of fungal endophytes and the endophytic fungal composition is different among the bryophyte species, and suggest that these fungal endophytes are adapted to cold stress in Antarctica. “
“The Bacillus cereus group comprises seven bacterial species: Bacillus cereus, Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus thuringiensis, Bacillus mycoides, Bacillus pseudomycoides, Bacillus cytotoxicus, and Bacillus weihenstephanensis. Bacillus weihenstephanensis is distinguished based on its capability to grow at 7 °C but not at 43 °C, and the presence of specific signature sequences in the 16S rRNA and cspA genes and in several housekeeping genes: glpF, gmK, purH, and tpi.

The latter case assumes that msRNA-428 may be produced in the course of degradation; however, its discrete size and cellular abundance argue for controlled processing and putative independent functioning. A complete data list, including ID, representative clone sequence, location in the 5′- and 3′-strand duplex of each msRNA hairpin loop, clone count, extended sequence and hairpin formation are presented Talazoparib cost in Table S1, which can be viewed online. Deep sequencing (next-generation sequencing) has given new opportunities to identify and quantify miRNAs (or sRNAs). With this technique, we analysed small-size, noncoding RNAs in an oral pathogen. By sequencing cDNA

libraries prepared from size-fractionated S. mutans RNA, we identified more than 900 possible msRNAs. Despite intensive studies of miRNAs in eukaryotic cells and viruses, the functions of sRNAs in bacteria remain largely uncharacterized except in E. coli. The c. 22 nt miRNAs employ well-established mechanisms to repress the mRNAs by short

seed pairing (animal) or intensive pairing (plant) within the 3′ untranslated region (Bartel, 2009). In bacteria, sRNAs are often bound to the RNA chaperone protein Hfq, which stabilizes their folding (Gottesman, 2004). Bacterial sRNAs form complementary duplexes with their target RNAs most frequently at the 5′ end of the message, which is not usually the case for eukaryotic miRNAs (Gottesman, LDE225 2005). However, recently, our knowledge of the functions of sRNAs has been extended by demonstrations

that sRNAs can target not only the 5′ ends but also the 3′ ends, the internal part of RNAs, some combinations within the transcripts, and even proteins (see the reviews by Gottesman, 2005; Vogel & Wagner, 2007; Thomason & Storz, 2010). The functions of miRNAs have been extended also by the finding of miRNAs that bind to the promoter regions of DNA (Li et al., 2006; Schnall-Levin et al., 2010). Applying the uniform identification system RG7420 mw used for miRNAs – a precursor structure that contains the c. 22 nt miRNA sequence within one arm of the hairpin (Ambros et al., 2003) – we show that msRNAs surrounding the sequence fulfil this potential fold-back structure using the RNA-folding software and also code for miRNA*-like msRNA* sequences (see Fig. 2b for an example of the msRNA structure). Although deep sequencing and Northern blot data show the existence of a family of msRNAs, the possibility that many of them originated from randomly degraded larger forms of RNAs cannot be excluded. However, a single, clear, unsmeared band of msRNA-428 revealed by the Northern blot (Fig. 2c) suggests that at least some of them may be specifically processed from the longer RNAs rather than produced in the course of random degradation. In this case, msRNAs may have functional activity in bacteria.

The latter case assumes that msRNA-428 may be produced in the course of degradation; however, its discrete size and cellular abundance argue for controlled processing and putative independent functioning. A complete data list, including ID, representative clone sequence, location in the 5′- and 3′-strand duplex of each msRNA hairpin loop, clone count, extended sequence and hairpin formation are presented http://www.selleckchem.com/products/PD-0332991.html in Table S1, which can be viewed online. Deep sequencing (next-generation sequencing) has given new opportunities to identify and quantify miRNAs (or sRNAs). With this technique, we analysed small-size, noncoding RNAs in an oral pathogen. By sequencing cDNA

libraries prepared from size-fractionated S. mutans RNA, we identified more than 900 possible msRNAs. Despite intensive studies of miRNAs in eukaryotic cells and viruses, the functions of sRNAs in bacteria remain largely uncharacterized except in E. coli. The c. 22 nt miRNAs employ well-established mechanisms to repress the mRNAs by short

seed pairing (animal) or intensive pairing (plant) within the 3′ untranslated region (Bartel, 2009). In bacteria, sRNAs are often bound to the RNA chaperone protein Hfq, which stabilizes their folding (Gottesman, 2004). Bacterial sRNAs form complementary duplexes with their target RNAs most frequently at the 5′ end of the message, which is not usually the case for eukaryotic miRNAs (Gottesman, Cabozantinib supplier 2005). However, recently, our knowledge of the functions of sRNAs has been extended by demonstrations

that sRNAs can target not only the 5′ ends but also the 3′ ends, the internal part of RNAs, some combinations within the transcripts, and even proteins (see the reviews by Gottesman, 2005; Vogel & Wagner, 2007; Thomason & Storz, 2010). The functions of miRNAs have been extended also by the finding of miRNAs that bind to the promoter regions of DNA (Li et al., 2006; Schnall-Levin et al., 2010). Applying the uniform identification system 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase used for miRNAs – a precursor structure that contains the c. 22 nt miRNA sequence within one arm of the hairpin (Ambros et al., 2003) – we show that msRNAs surrounding the sequence fulfil this potential fold-back structure using the RNA-folding software and also code for miRNA*-like msRNA* sequences (see Fig. 2b for an example of the msRNA structure). Although deep sequencing and Northern blot data show the existence of a family of msRNAs, the possibility that many of them originated from randomly degraded larger forms of RNAs cannot be excluded. However, a single, clear, unsmeared band of msRNA-428 revealed by the Northern blot (Fig. 2c) suggests that at least some of them may be specifically processed from the longer RNAs rather than produced in the course of random degradation. In this case, msRNAs may have functional activity in bacteria.