bacterial lipopolysaccharide plus interferon-gamma (LPS/IFN-γ), or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) or yeast Zymosan A fragments (Zymosan). The urban dust EHC-93

refers SGI-1776 to material collected from the baghouse filters of the Environmental Health Centre (EHC) building in Ottawa, ON, Canada and prepared as described previously (Vincent et al., 1997). Standard Reference Materials, SRM-1648 (urban particulate matter, St. Louis), SRM-1649 (urban dust/organics, Washington), SRM-1879 (respirable cristobalite, SiO2) and SRM-154b (titanium dioxide, TiO2) were obtained from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (Gaithersburg, MD, USA) and used as supplied, except for TiO2, which was subjected to three washes with methanol, followed by three washes with phosphate buffered saline (Vincent et al., 1997). Fine particulate matter from Vermillion, Ohio (VERP), with an aerodynamic size cut-off of 2.5 μm (PM2.5) collected on hi-vol filters in 1992 was recovered by sonication and lyophilization (Vincent et al., 1997). The metal oxides, iron II/III oxide (<5 μm diameter; 98%

purity), iron III oxide (<5 μm; 99+%), copper II oxide (<5 μm; 99+%) and nickel II oxide (<10 μm; 76–77%), were obtained Hormones antagonist from Sigma–Aldrich Co., St. Louis, MO, USA. The particulates including metal oxides were selected given that they cover a wide range of occupational limits for airborne exposures (ACGIH, 2010, NIOSH, 2007, Ontario Ministry of Labour, Sclareol 2010, OSHA, 2006 and Québec Gazette Officielle, 2009; Table 1). For aqueous extraction, one g of EHC-93 was suspended in 5 ml of deionized sterile water (>16 MOhms resistivity), sonicated on ice for 20 min, and centrifuged at 500g, 10 min. The extract was collected and the insoluble material was resuspended in 5 ml of water. This process was repeated twice and

pooled supernatant was centrifuged at 900g for 3.5 h. The pellet was combined with the previous insoluble fraction. The aqueous extract was further filtered through a 0.2 μm nylon filter. The filtrate was eluted with 5 ml of methanol and the eluate was pooled with the aqueous extract. The aqueous extract and the water-insoluble pellet were subsequently frozen at −80 °C and lyophilized. The native EHC-93 material is hereafter referred to as EHC-93tot, and the soluble and insoluble fraction, EHC-93sol and EHC-93insol, respectively. The water-leached EHC-93insol particles and the water-soluble leachate EHC-93sol had mass recovery of 97%, with 80% being recovered as solid leached particles and 17% as soluble material ( Vincent et al., 2001). Stock suspensions of particulate materials including metal oxides were prepared at 10 mg/ml in 0.025% Tween-80 and 0.9% NaCl.

The a*ph(λ) spectra lacked sharply defined

peaks or shoulders at stations where suspended solids were high, because detrital matter is generally present in an oxidised state and lacks resonance ( Kiefer & SooHoo 1982). The weak stratification shows that mixing was prominent as a result of physical forcing, which might also contribute to sediment resuspension. Particles suspended in the water column diminish PAR availability in the subsurface waters by absorbing and reflecting light, which alters phytoplankton photosynthesis and biomass production. Furuya et al. (2006) reported that streak-shaped red tides are common in the case of N. scintillans. compound screening assay Le Févre & Grall (1970) observed that the mechanical convergence of N. scintillans helps to maintain a dense condition. Nutrient availability can also induce modifications in light absorption ( Babin et al. 1996), but nutrients were not exhausted in Manila Bay at the time of this survey ( Furuya et al. 2006). The high temperatures recorded at stations with high TChl a concentrations provide evidence for enhanced absorption by the algal biomass ( Lewis et al. 1983). In summary, the bloom in Manila Bay was dominated by Noctiluca scintillans Macartney. Extremely high TChl a and elevated levels of peridinin, fucoxanthin and

TChl b were also recorded. Since this was ABT 263 a highly polluted coastal environment, the absorption features of the accessory pigments were masked, due partly to the elevated contribution of detrital matter and partly to the presence of overlapping pigment absorption bands. Derivative analysis effectively resolved the overlapping features and enhanced the absorption characteristics of the accessory pigments. We conclude that a high intracellular accessory pigment concentration along with the large size of Noctiluca Flucloronide contributed significantly to the variability in

the a*ph(λ) spectrum in Manila Bay. Even though Chl a took a major share of the total light absorption, photosynthetic pigments like Chl b, peridinin and fucoxanthin also made a significant contribution. The general trend of non-photosynthetic carotenoid absorption decreasing with depth, especially at the NS transect stations, points towards lower photoprotection due to increased turbidity. The authors thank Prof. Ken Furuya, Dr Motoaki Kishino and Dr Takashi Yoshikawa for their valuable suggestions on an earlier version of the manuscript. We also extend our gratitude to Prof. Rhodora V. Azanza for her help in the survey and to Dr(s) Abdul Jaleel, Raghavendra Mupparthy, Usha Parameswaran and Jayalakshmi for their help in the preparation of the manuscript. “
“The Baltic Sea is a young water body, geologically and hydrologically unstable, with limited biodiversity on the one hand, but a good many introduced alien species on the other (Leppäkoski et al., 2002, Paavola et al., 2005 and Bonsdorff, 2006).

Findings from target search paradigms are also well in line with the influence of C. The difficult conjunction search elicits a larger P1 than the much easier pop-out LBH589 purchase search which is associated with D. Both processes, C and D lead

to a modulation of SNR in task relevant networks (for a discussion of theoretical considerations see e.g., Navalpakkam and Itti, 2007), but the more difficult of the two processes has a stronger effect on SNR and hence on the size of the P1 amplitude. Another interesting finding is that the P1 is larger for large search arrays which are more difficult to process than small search arrays. Several properties of the P1 show similarities with alpha oscillations. As an example, the latency of the P1 (of about 100 ms) corresponds to the length of the alpha period which is 100 ms for a typical alpha frequency of 10 Hz. More specifically, P1 latency is significantly correlated 3-Methyladenine research buy with individual alpha frequency (Klimesch et al. 2004), and alpha phase locking is largest in the time window of the P1 (Klimesch et al. 2004). Furthermore, alpha power predicts the size of the P1 amplitude (Freunberger et al., 2008a) and significant phase alignment of alpha oscillations predicts P1 latency (Gruber et al. 2005). Finally, under certain task demands, latency differences in the topography of the P1 can be explained by traveling alpha waves (Klimesch et al. 2007c). It is important to emphasize here that phase reorganization

appears as a necessary and logical consequence of an oscillation theory (cf. Klimesch et al. 2007b for an extensive discussion of this issue). If it is assumed that oscillations play an important role for the timing of sensory and cognitive processes this basic function must be evident also during the event-related response and phase reorganization is an obligatory consequence to Morin Hydrate avoid the potential problem that a stimulus may fall in the unfavorable phase of an oscillatory cycle.

It also should be mentioned that the influence of alpha on the ERP is not limited to early components, such as the P1. There is empirical evidence that baseline shifts of alpha (cf. Nikulin et al., 2007) and asymmetric alpha amplitude modulations (Mazaheri and Jensen, 2008) have a strong influence on slow evoked responses. In the following, we discuss findings that document a complex relationship between ongoing alpha and the P1 component. We focus on two different aspects. One aspect emphasizes the cognitive-functional relationship between alpha and the P1, and the other focuses on quantitative and physiological aspects. Before we start to consider a quantitative relationship between ongoing alpha and P1 amplitude it is important to emphasize that prestimulus alpha power is predictive for good memory and perceptual performance. For memory performance, we have shown that large resting or prestimulus alpha power is positively associated with performance (Doppelmayr et al.

Chromoendoscopy made it possible to identify dysplastic lesions and to clarify the borders between neoplastic PD0325901 chemical structure and normal tissue. This development has led to the smart biopsy concept, in which more targeted biopsies become possible after enhanced endoscopy (chromoendoscopy) (Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). Panchromoendoscopy has become the method of choice for endoscopic surveillance of patients with

IBD (European consensus guidelines).2 Confocal laser endomicroscopy (CLE) is a research and clinical tool that promises to improve diagnostics and therapeutic algorithms in patients with IBD. Endomicroscopy has been shown to be useful in dysplasia detection and differentiation of lesions to optimize their management (differentiation between colitis-associated neoplasia, sporadic neoplasia, and nonneoplastic lesions) and to reduce the number of unnecessary biopsies.4 Confocal endomicroscopy has for the first time revealed in vivo tissue selleck chemical microscopy to gastroenterologists.4 Using this technology, changes in vessel, connective tissue, and cellular-subcellular structures can be graduated during ongoing colonoscopy at subcellular resolution.5 and 6 Confocal endomicroscopy has been shown to decrease the need for random biopsies because it has

a high negative predictive value. Its use is often combined with chromoendoscopy. Intravital staining is used to identify lesions and targeted endomicroscopy is performed to clarify the need for standard biopsies. Thus, endomicroscopically normal-looking mucosa does not usually require further

standard biopsies. Neoplastic changes and regenerative tissue can readily be identified using this method. However, detailed knowledge about the microarchitecture of the mucosa is necessary to achieve high diagnostic yields.6 and 7 The CLE technique introduced in 2004 has been developed Bumetanide for cellular and subcellular imaging of the mucosal layer.5 In confocal microscopy, a low-power laser is focused to a single point in a microscopic field of view and the same lens is used as both condenser and objective folding the optical path, so the point of illumination coincides with the point of detection within the specimen.6 Light emanating from that point is focused through a pinhole to a detector and light emanating from outside the illuminated spot is not detected. Because the illumination and detection systems are at the same focal plane, they are termed confocal.6 All detected signals from the illuminated spot are captured and the created image is an optical section representing 1 focal plane within the examined specimen. The image of a scanned region can be constructed and digitized by measuring the light returning to the detector from successive points, and every point is typically scanned in a raster pattern.6 At present, 2 CLE-based systems are used in clinical routine and research (Table 1)6 and 7: 1.

17 However, recent findings of associations between specific HLA haplotypes and DILI,18, 19 and 20 which does not have hypersensitivity

features, have highlighted the DLST’s potential value.21 In fact, a recent diagnostic scale, the Digestive Disease Week-Japan, already includes DLST.17 Nevertheless, low sensitivity (around 50%), lack of causality between a positive result and liver injury, lack of standardization and restricted availability outside Japan limit its use.21 and 22 And so, some authors advocate that it should be considered in selected cases, such as those in which a single causative agent cannot be determined.22 We considered that DSLT was not mandatory in our patient since fosfomycin was the only drug used. In a prospective study, drug-induced liver injury was caused by a single prescription medication in 73% of the cases

and antibiotics were the single largest class Vorinostat concentration of hepatotoxic agents.15 In summary, we report a potential case of acute hepatocellular lesion caused by fosfomycin. Being a commonly used antibiotic, physicians should be aware of this rare but potentially serious adverse drug reaction. The authors declare that there is any financial support for this manuscript. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. “
“The anal canal tumors are unusual lesions whose frequence is about 1.5% of the gastrointestinal tract neoplasias.1 The predominant check details histological type is the squamous cells cancer (SCC) (47%), followed by cloacogenic carcinoma and less commonly melanoma

or mucinous adenocarcinoma.2 In relation to the neuroendocrine tumor (NET) occurrence on this selleck chemicals llc location, its undeniable rarity justifies this case report. A 49-year-old woman presented with anal bleeding, small-caliber stool with purulent discharge and severe proctalgia in the last three months. She had no abominal pain, no bowel habit changes, no fever, no loss weight and no inguinal lymphadenopathy. Investigation was conducted by the Colorectal Service of Hospital de Base, São José do Rio Preto, and started in August 2007. Two perianal condylomas and a hard anal mass were detected in the rectal exam and the pathological evaluation revealed condylomatosis and a poorly differentiated, ulcerated and invasive SCC. The patient was treated with Nigro. An incisional biopsy of the residual lesion was performed that resulted in no sign of malignancy. One year later, colonoscopy was normal and there were no metastasis in the imaging follow-up. After 7 months, the patient returned with 5 cm bilateral mammary and axillary protuberances (Fig. 1), right inguinal lymphadenopathy (Fig. 2) and ipsilateral thigh abscess (Fig. 3). In face of the possibility of canal anal tumor recurrence, it was sought colonoscopy and biopsy with immunohistochemical markers search in the potentially metastatic lesions. Neoplastic cells were immunoreactive for cytokeratin (CK) 35 (Fig. 6), cromogranin A (CgA) (Fig.

Z użyciem tabeli randomizacyjnej pacjentów losowo przydzielano do jednej z trzech grup, w których stosowano odpowiednio: 1. 2% żel Lignocainum Hydrochloricum U (producent Przedsiębiorstwo Farmaceutyczne JELFA S.A. Jelenia Góra), czas aplikacji 15 min; Niezaangażowana w pobieranie krwi pielęgniarka wybierała do nakłucia żyłę łokciową, prawej lub lewej ręki, a następnie

aplikowała odpowiednią dawkę preparatu. W każdym Alectinib mouse przypadku zastosowaną warstwę środka znieczulającego pokrywano przezroczystym opatrunkiem okluzyjnym. Zarówno dziecko, jak i osoba pobierająca krew nie wiedziała, do której grupy został przydzielony pacjent. Po upływie wymaganego czasu aplikacji usuwano opatrunek i w warunkach gabinetu zabiegowego pobierano przez nakłucie żyły krew do zleconych badań diagnostycznych. Każdorazowo zabieg pobierania krwi wykonywała ta sama pielęgniarka. W przypadku pojawienia się problemów z jednorazowym pobraniem krwi (np. pęknięcie naczynia), rezygnowano z dalszego uczestniczenia dziecka w badaniu. Po pobraniu krwi i opuszczeniu gabinetu zabiegowego, w wyznaczonym miejscu – sala pobytu dziennego – dziecko otrzymywało kartę z Obrazową Skalą Oceny Bólu (FSP) i zaznaczało rysunek, który odpowiadał nasileniu odczuwanego bólu w trakcie całego zabiegu. Średnie różnice natężenia bólu w trzech badanych grupach porównywano z użyciem

jednoczynnikowej analizy wariancji dla grup przekrojowych ANOVA (test F), a następnie dla zmiennych ciągłych obliczono średnią różnicę między badanymi grupami. Dla zmiennych Adenosine triphosphate dychotomicznych ABT 888 obliczono ryzyko względne, które definiowano jako

iloraz prawdopodobieństwa wystąpienia danego skutku w grupie eksperymentalnej, w której zastosowano interwencję i tego prawdopodobieństwa w grupie kontrolnej. Wyniki przedstawiono w postaci średniej wraz z 95% przedziałem ufności. Do statystycznej analizy danych użyto komputerowego programu Statistica wersji 5,0, firmy Stat Soft. Analiza wyników została dokonana w grupach wyodrębnionych zgodnie z zaplanowanym leczeniem (ITT – intention to treat analysis). Badanie prowadzone było na Oddziale Pediatrycznego Szpitala Zachodniego im. Jana Pawła II w Grodzisku Mazowieckim w okresie od kwietnia 2004 r. do marca 2005 r. Wstępnie zakwalifikowano 83 pacjentów przyjętych na oddział celem rozszerzenia diagnostyki z zakresu chorób układu oddechowego, alergii, niedoborów masy ciała i wzrostu, zaburzeń ze strony układu pokarmowego, moczowego oraz po wcześniejszym omdleniu i/lub utracie przytomności. Pięć osób (dzieci i/lub opiekunów) po informacji, że czas aplikacji preparatu może wynosić do 1 godziny nie wyraziło zgody na dalsze uczestnictwo w badaniu. Pozostałych 78 pacjentów zgodnie z listą randomizacyjną zakwalifikowano do jednej z 3 interwencji (2% lignokaina, krem EMLA lub placebo), po 26 dzieci w każdej grupie.

The Journal accepts unsolicited manuscripts in 13 peer-reviewed categories that comprise either the Research section or the Practice Applications section: Original Research; Reviews; Qualitative Research; Research and Professional Briefs; Research and Practice Innovations; Rapamycin nmr Practical Clinical Solutions; Research

Editorial; Commentary; Emerging Science & Translational Applications; New Investigator Program Initiative; Topics of Professional Interest; Business of Dietetics; Letters to the Editor. Elsevier Editorial System, the Web-based peer-review and article submission system for the Journal of the American Dietetic Association, is required for submission of manuscripts and reviews. Web-based peer review provides full electronic capabilities for submission, review, and status updates. Manuscripts must be submitted at http://ees.elsevier.com/adaj. The Tutorial for Authors can also be found at http://ees.elsevier.com/adaj. For problems or questions concerning submission, contact Claire Zulkey, Assistant to the Editor-in-Chief, at 312/908-5749 or [email protected]. “
“You are invited to submit an abstract for review and possible

presentation at the American Dietetic Association (ADA) Food & Nutrition Conference & Expo (FNCE) in San Diego, CA, September 24-27, 2011. Only abstracts submitted online before 11:59pmCentral time on Thursday, February 24, 2011, and that follow all submission guidelines described below

selleck kinase inhibitor will be reviewed. Paper and e-mail abstracts will not be accepted. Please read this information carefully and go to www.eatright.org/fnce to submit your abstract. The online Call for Abstracts opens January 4, 2011. An abstract is a brief, written summary (no more than 250 words) of the specific ideas or concepts to be presented, and a statement of their relevance to practice or research. The Chlormezanone following two types of abstracts are presented: • Research abstracts include a brief description of the author’s original research methodology, including design, subject characteristics and procedures, major findings, and conclusions or implications for dietetics practice. Qualifying abstract submissions in all Learning Need Codes are encouraged and will be peer reviewed for poster presentation at the 2011 FNCE. Poster Presentations offer content using charts, graphs, illustrations, and/or photographs. Posters allow for informal, one-on-one or small group discussions with the presenter about the issue, problem, project, or research addressed in the poster. The poster area will consist of one 4-ft. high x 8-ft. wide cork-surface bulletin board on which to mount presentation information, and one 2-ft. x 6-ft. material table, provided by ADA; however, ADA may choose to adopt an electronic poster medium which would require 10-12 PowerPoint slides instead of the traditional hard copy poster.

001). We also examined the time course of hippocampal expression of the NFκB and IRF3-dependent

gene interferon-inducible protein 10 (IP-10). This chemokine mRNA showed a very similar temporal pattern of induction to the other primary response genes studied (Fig. 3f), peaking at 4 h and decreasing thereafter, making it unlikely that it is induced by IFNβ. After a significant mTOR inhibitor one-way ANOVA (F = 67.76, df 5, 25, p < 0.0001), Bonferroni post hoc tests showed that ME7 + poly I:C was significantly higher than NBH + poly I:C but ME7 + saline was not significantly different to NBH + poly I:C (p > 0.05). IBA-1, COX-2 and IL-1β staining illustrated clear morphological evidence of microglial activation (Fig. 4 a versus b and c) and increased expression of COX-2 (d and e) but an

absence of IL-1β-positive cells (g and h) in ME7 animals with respect to NBH controls 3 h after treatment with saline or poly I:C. IBA-1 revealed significantly increased numbers of activated microglia (p   < 0.001 ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc test; Table 2) in ME7 animals compared to NBH with no further increase following administration of poly I:C (p≫0.05p≫0.05). Upon systemic challenge with poly I:C these microglial cells, in the periventricular and dentate gyrus regions, now synthesised detectable Venetoclax mouse levels of IL-1β (i) in ME7 but not NBH animals. IL-1β positive cells were found to be significantly higher in number in ME7 animals challenged with poly I:C than all other groups (p < 0.05 by ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc test; Table 2). The endothelial cell layer was also induced to synthesize COX-2 in response to systemic poly I:C in both NBH and ME7 animals (d and f). Quantification of individual COX-2-labelled cells is not straightforward in the tightly apposed endothelial layer of hippocampal vessels, but it is clear that the vast majority of hippocampal

vessels are positively labelled after poly I:C challenge in NBH and ME7, while those in the ME7 + saline group are not. Numerous cells in periventricular and perivascular areas and around the dentate gyrus showed IRF3 labelling, and there was evidence of more intense Chorioepithelioma and more frequent staining of nuclei in the hippocampus and thalamus, consistent with nuclear translocation in the areas of prior ME7-associated pathology. There were no gross changes in the hippocampal levels of PrPSc in response to systemic poly I:C challenge ( Supplementary data). Fig. 5(a–d) shows evidence of increased IFNα/β action in the hippocampus via expression of IRF7, OAS, PKR and Mx1 transcription. These genes are known to be IFNβ-responsive, STAT1/2-dependent genes and are not induced directly by TLR3 signalling or by IRF3 activation (Honda and Taniguchi, 2006). IRF7 was clearly induced by poly I:C (main effect of poly I:C: F = 231.16, df 1, 14, p < 0.0001). There was also a main effect of disease (F = 39.

930′ E144°52.351′) in northern Guam and at the Inarajan Experiment Station (N13°61.963′ E144°45.353′) in southern Guam from October 01, 2013 to January 30, 2014. Treatment plots measuring 6 × 6 m were arranged in a randomized block design and separated from other plots by 1 m buffer zones to prevent any treatment Everolimus effect. Sweet potato cuttings of the variety IB 195 (Kuma 2) known to be highly susceptible to C. formicarius damage

( Nandawani and Tudela, 2010) were transplanted into rows 80 cm apart with 30 cm between plants within each row. Each treatment was replicated three times, for a total of 33 individual plots. Each plot consisted of 12 rows of 15 sweet potato plantings, for a total of 180 plants per plot. Fertilizer in the form of N, P, K, and S was applied at the actual time of planting according to published recommendations ( Nandawani and Tudela, 2010). Since plants require thirty days to form tubers, at which time C. formicarius infestation starts, the first treatment applications ( Table 1) were made on October 1, 2013. A pretreatment count of C. formicarius damage was taken on September 30, 2013, and subsequent counts were made on October

14, November 4 and 18, and December 02 and 16. The damage to selleck roots (tubers) in each plot was evaluated by randomly selecting eight roots from each treatment plot and counting the number of feeding holes. The yield of sweet potato as measured by tuber weight was recorded for each plot. Damage levels and yields from the treatment and control plots were compared, relative to controls, to evaluate the effectiveness of entomopathogens and low risk insecticides in reducing damage from C. formicarius. Adult weevils were collected from each plot in randomly selected 1 m2 quadrats (Reddy, 2011)

searched the surface of the ground at the same time intervals as mentioned above. Sampled insects were then incubated in the laboratory for up to two weeks and observed for mortality. Any adults failing to move when probed for with a dissecting needle were recorded as dead and removed from the boxes. These dead adults were surface-sterilized and incubated separately in Petri dishes containing moist filter paper. The cadavers were inspected for the presence of fungal mycelium (mycosis) after 7–14 days. All mortality in each treatment was transformed to adjusted mortality (AM) according to the control (water spray). The AM was calculated as the following equation: AM=Mortalitytreatment-Mortalitycontrol1-Mortalitycontrolwhere Mortalitytreatment was the mortality of adult (C. formicarius) in each treatment while Mortalitytreatment was the mortality of adults in the control treatment. The data of AM were log-transformed to meet the normal distribution requirement, with homogeneous variance among different treatments. Then, repeated measures ANOVA was used to examine the effects of different treatments (T1: M. brunneum, T2: B. bassiana, T3: spinosad, T4: azadirachtin, T5: B. bassiana + M. brunneum, T6: B.

, 2007b), and Nova Scotia ( Owens et al., 2011), among others. We wish to emphasize that these declining concentration rates (% day−1) are not ‘decay’ rates of specific molecules

that were all deposited in a single oiling event. The oil that was initially deposited in the marsh in 2010 underwent unequal degrees of decomposition, mixing, evaporation or burial across all sampling sites and had some additional oiling in 2012, and, perhaps, at other times. The decline in concentration is the result of changes in the concentration of a heterogeneous mixture of alkanes and aromatics Compound C whose arrival into the marsh came at various times (e.g., Fig. 5 and Fig. 6), not all at one time; the oil may have arrived with an analyte mixture that was unequally decomposed or diluted as source

materials before marsh deposition, from one oiling event to another, or after deposition. There was a fourfold and sixfold increase in the average concentration Venetoclax manufacturer of target alkanes and PAHs, respectively, immediately after the passage of Hurricane Isaac over Port Sulphur, LA (28 September 2011), located a few km from our study sites. The pre- and post-Isaac data were from plots sampled within 0.5 m of the same plots and are in Fig. 9A and B. These storm conditions, supplemented by normal tidal inundations, would also re-distribute oil into relatively un-oiled wetlands, raising the lowest values, as well. It is interesting that these strong inundation events did not, apparently, dilute the oil concentrations in the wetland sediments. The interpretation of the degree of ‘restoration’ of the oiling of these wetlands depends, in part, on the metric used to define success. The concentration of total target alkanes and PAHs in June 2013 was Chorioepithelioma about 1% and 5%, respectively, of the average values measured in February 2011. These numbers might be used

to argue that the wetland was between 99% and 95% restored at that time. The concentration of target alkanes, however, remained 3.6 times higher than the baseline values (May 2010) before the wetland oiling, and are 33 times higher than the baseline concentration of the PAHs. This suggests that impacted wetlands may take decades to recover to the pre-disaster (2010) conditions. We do not, therefore, anticipate a ‘quick’ restoration in these heavily impacted areas and recommend following the long-term persistence of the PAHs within these Louisiana marsh sediments. Most samples had some measurable petroleum hydrocarbons in them, both before the wetlands were oiled in 2010, and afterwards. The very lowest samples from reference sites, representing what we think were the recently un-oiled sites from 2010, averaged 0.98 ± 0.31 mg kg−1 of target alkanes and 23.89 ± 6.07 μg kg−1 of target PAHs, and have been increasing and remaining relatively high. The average of the lowest five concentrations of target alkanes and PAHs rose up to 131X and 829X, respectively, above the pre-oiled conditions (May 2010).