From a genetic point of view, AD may be subdivided into three forms according to the observed mode of inheritance: first, autosomal -dominant familial AD; second, familial AD without clear mendelian inheritance (familial aggregation); and third, sporadic AD without familial aggregation. About 5% to 10%

of all AD cases can be fully explained by the presence of genetic factors in terms of autosomal dominant AD. These cases are caused by mutations in the genes encoding amyloid precursor protein (APP, located on chromosome 21), presenilin 1 (PSEN1, chromosome Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 14), and presenilin 2 (PSEN2, chromosome 1). In other cases, a different familial aggregation can be observed: relatives of AD patients show increased risk of developing dementia compared with relatives of healthy control subjects without clear autosomal-dominant inheritance.6,7 This type of familial aggregation may be due to shared genetic or environmental risk factors within families.

Finally, the major proportion of AD cases is, however, sporadic, which is defined as the absence of evidence for familial aggregation. This group Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical is nevertheless influenced by so-called Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical susceptibility genes that confer a minor genetic risk associated with allelic variations in the form of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Histopathologically, AD is characterized by two hallmarks: the extracellular β-amyloid click here plaques with amyloid β-peptides (Aβ) as major constituents, and the intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), ultrastructurally described as paired helical filaments (PHFs), made up predominantly by tau proteins. Aβ peptides are 38 to 42 amino acids in length and are derived by endoproteolysis of APP by the combined activities of β-secretase (BACE) at the amino terminal and γ-sccrctasc that cleave at the C-terminal, respectively, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the Aβ domain.8 Alternative

amino terminal cleavage by β-secretase (tumor necrosis factor-α convertase [TACE]/A Disintegrin And Metalloproteinasc [ADAM10]) within the Aβ domain results in the generation of nonamyloidogenic fragments. Mutations in all three genes causing familial AD―APP, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical PSEN1, and PSEN2 – alter the processing of APP toward the production of more amyloidogenic Aβ species.9 Genetic, histopathological, and other experimental findings prompted the hypothesis that Aβ peptides are an essential feature of the pathogenetic found cascade causing AD: Aβ deposits into β-amyloid plaques and causes neuronal dysfunction, ultimately leading to neurodegeneration and dementia.10 Aβ40 and, in particular, Aβ42 rapidly aggregate to form oligomers, protofibrils, and fibrils11 that can deposit into β-amyloid plaques, induce cell death,12 and accelerate formation of NFTs.13,14 The brain β-amyloid burden increases with age and correlates with the learning capacities in mutated APP-transgenic mice.15 The functional impact of fibrillar Aβ peptides was demonstrated by Walsh et al16 in a series of experiments using APP V717F Chinese hamster ovary cells.