S Department

S. Department mostly of Commerce, Census Bureau, 2007b, 2007c). Nonetheless, the difficulties inherent in correctly answering some items and the likely sensitive nature of smoking-related questions could lead to data ambiguity. Therefore, inaccurate results can be observed even if the researchers use cutting-edge statistical methodology to analyze survey data. To improve the design, administration, and data quality of national surveys, one should take into account respondents�� cognitive and motivational processes when they answer smoking-related questions. Cognitive processing generally includes four stages: interpretation of the meaning of a question, memory search of all related information, integration of all related information, and report of the summary of this information (Tourangeau, Rips, & Rosinski, 2000, pp.

1�C22). Difficulties can occur at any of these stages, for example, respondents may interpret a term or a question incorrectly, may have difficulty retrieving relevant information from memory, or may produce a response that fails to match the nature of the response category expected. Furthermore, motivational factors may influence responses. If respondents carry out these processes cautiously and comprehensively, they optimize; otherwise, they may make limited effort and satisfice (Krosnick, 1991, 1999; Krosnick et al., 2002). Inaccurate responses also can be a direct result of a social desirability bias, in which respondents provide answers that comply with social norms.

As a result, respondents might underreport undesirable behaviors, for example, smoking, drinking, and illicit drug use (Johnson & Mott, 2001; Kreuter, Presser, & Tourangeau, 2009; Sillett, Wilson, Malcolm, & Ball, 1978; Tourangeau & Yan, 2007; Velicer, Prochaska, Rossi, & Snow, 1992). Several research papers have addressed the impact of a survey method on respondents�� satisficing and social desirability bias (Kreuter et al., 2009; Holbrook, Green, & Krosnick, 2003) and overall data quality (J?ckle, Roberts, & Lynn, 2006). It was shown that a respondent is less likely to satisfice during a personal interview than during a phone interview (Holbrook et al., 2003). Comparing self-reported current smoking habits with results of biochemical assessments have been used to assess validity of self-reports over several decades.

Based on the evidence collected in two clinical trials conducted in the 1970s, it was concluded that a relatively large proportion of people who had been advised to AV-951 quit smoking have provided deceptive answers regarding their quitting smoking (Sillett et al., 1978). A further study utilized the data from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and investigated underreporting of cigarette consumption among Mexican-American smokers (P��rez-Stable, Mar��n, Mar��n, Brody, & Benowitz, 1990).

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