One-sided tests were used for comparison of small sample sizes (n < 5). A P-value of < 0·05 was considered significant in call cases. Elevated Treg numbers have been observed in response to H. pylori infection, both at the site of infection and circulating in the periphery [20, 21]. To determine whether the elevated number of Tregs Metformin nmr was due to active proliferation at the site of infection, we stained gastric biopsy specimens from patients with and without confirmed H. pylori infection for FoxP3 and the proliferation marker Ki67 (four sections

from each patient and four patients). As expected from previous publications, H. pylori-positive biopsy specimens had greater numbers of FoxP3+ cells than H. pylori-negative specimens (Fig. 1a). In the presence of H. pylori, a greater percentage of Tregs stained positively for Ki67 (10·2 ± 1·5% versus 2·4 ± 2·0% of FoxP3+ cells, P < 0·05; Fig. 1a,b), suggesting that Tregs proliferate in vivo in the presence of H. pylori. DCs play a critical role in presenting pathogens to the adaptive immune response. Murine selleck chemical models have indicated that pathogen-stimulated DCs can alter Treg function [22, 26] and their presence in the gastric mucosa indicates that they have the opportunity to influence Treg function [13]. To determine whether H. pylori-stimulated DCs (HpDCs) can influence Treg proliferation

and can, at least in part, explain the expansion of Tregs seen at biopsy sites of H. pylori-infected individuals [10, 13], DCs were generated from peripheral blood monocytes using GM-CSF and IL-4, and incubated with H. pylori [106−4 cfu/ml corresponding to multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 0·75] for 8 h before being washed and placed in co-culture with allogeneic

Tregs for 5 days (Fig. 2), as described previously by us [10]. Allogeneic Tregs were used, as published previously [10], to ensure that the frequency of responding Tregs was not dependent on previous H. pylori exposure and relied purely on the high frequency of alloreactive Tregs [30]. HpDC-induced Treg proliferation was assessed by [3H]-thymidine incorporation; an example is shown in Fig. 2a. This was confirmed through cumulative Venetoclax experiments with HpDCs (106 cfu/ml), in which the differences between Treg proliferation in the presence and absence of H. pylori were found to be statistically significant (Fig. 2b). Tregs were enriched using magnetic beads and, although the purity reached 90%, to ensure further that proliferation measured was not due to non-Treg (e.g. CD4+CD25int T cells) ‘contamination’ of Treg preparations, Tregs were purified to >98% purity by FACS sorting (to ensure that only the CD25hi cells were selected) and cultured with DCs as before. HpDCs expanded allogeneic CD25hi cells, confirming that the proliferation observed was not due to impurities (Fig. 2c). We also ruled out the possibility that H.