Nevertheless, this success has led to the development of other RAS/RAF pathway inhibitors, for example, for mutated BRAF or downstream kinases like MEK. Alternative activation of RAS/RAF pathway has been proposed as a #signaling pathway randurls[1|1|,|CHEM1|]# resistance mechanism [60]. In line with this, the combination of BRAF inhibition with MEK inhibition led to an improved survival Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of 9.4 months [61]. Other new therapies that add to the therapeutic options for melanoma patients are immunotherapies. An anti-CTLA-4 antibody (Ipilimumab) improved survival of stage II and IV melanoma patients (10.1

versus 6.4 months) [62]. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte Antigen 4 (CTLA-4) inhibits T-cell responses and respectively, CTLA-4 blockade promotes immune responses and antitumor activity. In an early analysis of anti-PD-L1 antibody,

a 20% response rate in melanoma was observed. Importantly, these responses lasted for more than 1 year [63]. Similar to CTLA4, PD-1 reduces immune activation, and its Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical inhibition can lead to reactivation of immune responses. Altogether, even with respect to the recent advances in melanoma therapy, the high resistance rates and the restriction to certain patient subgroups demonstrate that there is still an urgent need to develop alternative therapies. 4. Assets of Nucleic Acid Nanoparticles Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in Antitumoral Approaches As also observed for other tumor entities, melanoma treatment with low molecular weight chemotherapeutic drugs often results in the rise of resistant

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cancers cells, especially in case of relapsed disease. A well-known mechanism of resistance is the elevated expression of multidrug transporter proteins, like p-glycoprotein, which actively pump chemotherapeutics out of the cell [64]. Here, macromolecular approaches can be a suitable approach to overcome such resistance. As an example, the attachment of chemotherapeutics to polymers via reversible covalent bonds helps to overcome this type of resistance (for a recent review see [65]). Also, biotherapeutics, such as antibodies, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical have been successfully applied in melanoma therapy (see above), but also here resistance can occur, for example, when blocking of one cellular pathway responsible for cancer cell proliferation can be replaced by another [66]. In this case, the application of therapeutically active nucleic acids comes into play. Firstly, they exhibit a relatively high molecular Histamine H2 receptor weight, which prevents resistance mediated by p-glycoprotein upregulation. Secondly, nucleic acids can be designed to affect only malignant cells, for example, by using promoter elements being only activated in tumors, or as RNA oligonucleotides (like siRNA), which will enable the knockdown of a specific protein overexpressed in tumor tissue. Furthermore, the delivery of more than one siRNA targeting different pathways can prevent tumor resistance by blocking different resistance or escape strands.