In the latter study, cross-priming Pexidartinib molecular weight by migratory lung DCs has been linked to the type I IFN signaling pathway and induction of an antiviral state. This finding implicates that viral sensors such as RIG-I or TLRs are required for cross-presentation by virus-infected DCs. We defined the signaling pathways that are required for HTNV-induced

HLA-I upregulation. Upon HTNV infection, MyD88 KD A549 cells and PKR KD A549 cells still increased HLA-I expression but not TRIF KD A549 cells. This excludes a role for PKR and all TLRs except TLR3, which relies on TRIF for signaling [22]. In accordance, TRIF but not MyD88 is upregulated in HTNV-infected cells [20]. The TRIF-connected DDX1-DDX21-DHX36 complex, a cytoplasmic viral sensor consisting of several Selleck GSK-3 inhibitor RNA helicases, could also be involved in HTNV-induced HLA-I enhancement [43]. Similarly, RIG-I KD A549 cells and parental A549 cells treated with BX795, which blocks the TBK1/IKKε signaling axis [27], failed to increase HLA-I surface expression upon HTNV infection. Taken together, there

is a mutual dependence between RIG-I and TRIF-connected sensors such as TLR3 in upregulating HLA-I upon HTNV infection. Hantaviral mechanisms driving the HLA-I antigen presentation machinery not only results in elimination of virus-infected cells but may also cause severe immunopathology. Thus, further unravelling the molecular details of these mechanisms could lead to a better understanding of hantavirus-associated immunopathology and designing better therapeutics. Buffy coat preparations were purchased from German Red Cross (Dresden) and monocyte-derived DCs were generated according to the approval of the ethic commission of the Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin. Written informed

consent was obtained from all healthy donors. Vero E6 cells, A549 cells, and primary human fibroblasts (Fi301) were maintained in DMEM (PAA) supplemented with 10% FCS CYTH4 (BioWhittaker), 2 mM l-glutamine, penicillin, and streptomycin (PAA). Cells were permanently transfected with plasmids encoding shRNA specific for RIG-I, PKR, MyD88, TRIF, and appropriate scrambled controls (nontarget shRNA). Permanent KD cells were prepared as described previously [21]. Puromycin (2 μg/mL) was added to complete medium for selection of KD A549 cell lines. The cell lines were checked by Western blot for efficient KD [21]. Medium and FCS were endotoxin free as certified by the manufacturer. Confluent monolayers were washed with PBS (PAA) and treated with trypsin at 37°C until cells detached. FCS-containing medium was added to stop trypsin action and cells were passaged. PBMCs were isolated by density gradient centrifugation as previously described [23]. In brief, blood was diluted 1:1 with RPMI medium (2% FCS and 0.2 mM EDTA) and carefully layered on top of Ficoll-Hypaque (PAA). Tubes were centrifuged at 800g for 30 min at room temperature.